William Shakespeare s The Merchant Of Venice Essay

Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice is so alike to our financially afflicted world. The rules of law and commerce are subject to deceptive manipulation, fear of the other overwhelms respect for a common humanity, duplicity is the norm, sexuality is a vehicle for ambition, and money drives and wraps almost every action. It is a classic tale that includes important details of the financial crisis in the United States during 2007-2009. Shakespeare’s Venice, like the New York of his time - and the financial capitals of ours - is a city based on borrowing, on market speculation and greed masquerading as wealth and sophistication. Behind the curtains of the practice of lending and borrowing money in Shakespeare’s play lay the transition to capitalism: the rise of banking system; the scarcity for credit in developing industrial enterprises; and the growing dispute of default facing both aristocratic landlords and, above all, small, independent early entrepreneurs on tr ading ventures. Even though almost 600 years apart from each other, both Shakespeare’s tale and the financial crisis in the United States during 2007-2009 have a similar financial dilemma, each has its unique Shylock, Bassanio and Antonio- people who were responsible for causing the meltdown of their days. We all know from our course that leverage and liquidity risks of financial institutions are vulnerable to the crisis. The financial crisis that emerged in 2007 had many and varied causes, but one of its mostShow MoreRelatedWilliam Shakespeare s The Merchant Of Venice Essay1624 Words   |  7 PagesWilliam Shakespeare s comedy The Merchant of Venice uses contrasting religions to draw out major themes through the ethnic divides that are exemplified. The play expresses the extreme cultural divide between the Jews and Christians through a legal contract between two men. The rivalry between the two men, Shylock and Antonio is clear from the beginning of the play and only intensifies as it continues on. Modern day readers most likely take away a slightly different message from the play than whatRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s The Merchant Of Venice1320 Words   |  6 Pagesghetto, and were treated as inferior to the rest of the city. William Shakespeare’s play The Merchant of Veni ce exhibits the prejudicial attitudes of his era. Antonio, a Christian merchant, makes a deal with Shylock, a Jewish moneylender. Shylock uses it as an opportunity to exact revenge by demanding a pound of Antonio’s flesh if he does not meet his end of the bargain. By pitting the majority of his characters against Shylock, Shakespeare portrays Shylock in a way that discriminates against all JewsRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s The Merchant Of Venice2269 Words   |  10 PagesSamantha Hansen ENG 314 Brother Brugger 12.15.14 The Question of Shylock It is hard to read The Merchant of Venice without finding at least one character to sympathize with. The unforgettable villain Shylock as well as Portia, Shakespeare’s first and one of his most famous heroines are arguably some of this plays most beloved characters. But, is Shylock really the villain? Or is he a victim of circumstance? Shylock’s insistence for a pound of flesh has made him one of literatures most memorableRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s The Merchant Of Venice1970 Words   |  8 Pagesthe titles are reflective of the protagonists featured within. For example, the famous titles of Julius Caesar and Hamlet tell the tragedies of those respective characters. However, when it comes to William Shakespeare’s fourteenth play, The Merchant of Venice, it can be argued that Antonio, the merchant, is not who the play is about. In fact, there is not just one character, but instead multiple that fit the description of the protagonist. The main plot, or rather p lots, of the play revolve aroundRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s The Merchant Of Venice1315 Words   |  6 PagesIn The Merchant of Venice by William Shakespeare the play is based upon the hierarchy between Christian men and Jewish men. A character by the name of Bassanio borrows money from his friend Antonio, and Antonio borrows the money from Shylock to give to Bassanio. Eventually, Antonio cannot pay the money back because his ships have supposedly sunk. Therefore, he comes close to death because he signed a bond with Shylock stating that Shylock would get a pound of his flesh if the bond was not repaidRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s The Merchant Of Venice1532 Words   |  7 Pagesuseless dialogue can make readers skip over what seems like a false beginning to a good story. But think about this: what if those seemingly lengthy, extra, useless words were actually important? For example, the opening 115 lines of William Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice are provide minimal support to the story at first glance. In these lines, Antonio and his friends are discussing the dynamics of happiness and sadness in order to find the root of Antonio’s sad mood. This portion of the play givesRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Merchant Of Venice988 Words   |  4 PagesAs I finished reading Merchant of Venice by Shakespeare, I realized that the struggle of the play gyrates around whether justice is truly served and is morality advocated or manipulated by those in authority. The struggle between the principles of justice have caused many readers to question the interaction between the definition of morality and justice. The bond that causes readers to take a closer look throughout the play originates from Shylock’s desire for vengeance and Antonio’s desireRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s The Merchant Of Venice1532 Words   |  7 Pagesfundamentalist Americans. The ills of money-lending from the Eastern perspective have been fodder for Western literature for centuries, replete with illustrations that mirror the differences and similarities in East-West cultural norms. In William Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice, money-lending has gone awry. In Act I, Scene iii, the Italian Antonio seeks to borrow 3,000 ducats from the Jewish Shylock, and Shylock intends to charge him interest, which is against Jewish economic-religious principles (BateRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s The Merchant Of Venice2059 Words   |  9 Pagesin The Merchant of Venice resembles a folktale known as â€Å"A Pound of Flesh† (325). Artese supports his supposition with background context and parallels between the two story lines. Literary versions of the pound of flesh story circulated during the sixteenth century and were collected since the nineteenth century because of the plot’s longevity and populairity Shakespeare would have been familiar with pound of flesh stories (326). Human commodification is a central issue in both The Merchant of VeniceRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s The Merchant Of Venice1616 Words   |  7 PagesThe Merchant of Venice offers another unique perspective on crossdressing as it existed on the English Renaissance stage. Howard suggests that Portia’s crossdressing is â€Å"more disruptive than Viola’s† (Howard, p. 433) because Portia herself was an unruly woman to begin with. Portia has become the master of her own destiny with the passing of her father, for she is referred to as the Lord of Belmont now that no man exists to fill such a role. What remains of the patriarchal authority, particularly

Conflict of Characters in Alice Walkers Everyday Use

In Alice Walkers Everyday Use† she creates a conflict between characters. Walker describes a family as they anxiously await the arrival of, Dee, the older sister of the family. When Dee (Wangero) comes home to visit Mrs. Johnson and Maggie, right away the readers see the differences in the family by how they talk, act, and dress. Dee has changed her name to an African name and is collecting the objects and materials of her past. Dee thinks that since she is in college she knows mores then the rest of her uneducated family. She is more educated and looks down on the simple life of her mother and sister. When Dee asks for a beautiful family heirloom quilt to hang on her wall, Mrs. Johnson finally denies her of this task. Mrs. Johnson finally sees that Dee does not want the quilt for the same purpose as Maggie does. Instead, Mrs. Johnson will give Maggie the quilt to keep her and her husband warm. The theme of the importance of heritage becomes clear at this point of the story. Th is theme is shown by Walkers use of conflict, irony, and symbolism. All throughout her short story she incorporates heritage. She describes it as a background feeling between family members, and African heritage to heirlooms that have been in the family line for generations. Dee the older sister takes her heritage for granted by only wanting her heirlooms for her educational purposes. The main conflict of the story is between Mrs. Johnson, Maggie and Dee. Dee arrives home and wants to take aShow MoreRelatedEveryday Use by Alice Walker: A Look at Symbolism and Family Values879 Words   |  4 PagesAlice Walkers â€Å"Everyday Use†, is a story about a family of African Americans that are faced with moral issues involving what true inheritance is and who deserves it. Two sisters and two hand stitched quilts become the center of focus for this short story. Walker paints for us the most vivid representation through a third person perspective of family values and how people from the same environment and upbringing can become different types of people. Like most peoples families there is a dynamicRead MoreDead Mens Path Literary Analysis1000 Words   |  4 PagesMany literatures have different conflicts that are rooted from one person. Then it evolves into multiple conflicts amongst others. â€Å"Dead Men’s Path† by Chinua Achebe shows a conflict between a headmaster name Michael Olbi and villagers. A garden at the school is blocking the path to a very special place. Where villagers go. â€Å"Everyday Use† by Alice Walker shows conflict between Mama, Dee, and Maggie. Dee wants to take the quilts away from her home, but Mama already planned to give the quilts to MaggieRead MoreAn Analysis of Alice Walkers quot;everyday Usequot; Essay929 Words   |  4 Pagesp An Analysis of Alice Walkers Everyday Usep Alice Walkers novel, The Color Purple, won the Pulitzer Prize in 1982. This novel, in addition to her short story collections and other novels, continue to touch the emotions of a vast audience. This ability, according to critics, has solidified her reputation as one of the major figures in contemporary literature (Gwynn 462). Born to sharecroppers in Eatonton, Georgia, in 1944, Alice Walkers life was not always easy. Her parents strived toRead MoreEveryday Use By Alice Walker1725 Words   |  7 Pagesmisrepresent it, especially the younger generations who just accept its presence. Alice Walker’s short story, â€Å"Everyday Use,† revolves around an African American family that consists of three women, who are very different from each other. The story begins with Maggie and Mama waiting in the yard for Dee, the main character, to visit from Augusta. Dee is the first person in her family to attend college, which creates distance and conflict between her family and her. The narrator, Mama, provides some backgroundRead MoreSymbolic References in Everyday Use by Alice Walker1848 Words   |  8 PagesSymbolism is the taking of an object big or small, and giving it something to stand for. It could be your everyday math symbols for addition, subtraction, division, and etc. Although math symbols are perfect examples of symbolism, there’s also objects that can be more than what they are. For example animals, Lions are known to be symbolized as strength, aggression, and assertiveness. Birds like doves are symbolized as love and peace. Colors are also held symbolically, for instance the color blackRead MoreConflict, Irony, and Symbolism in Alice Walker’s â€Å"Everyday Use†754 Words   |  4 PagesConflict, Irony, and Symbolism in Alice Walker’s â€Å"Everyday Use† In the short story Everyday Use, by  Alice Walker,  tension between characters is evident. When Dee arrives home to visit Mama and Maggie, readers can see the differences in personality between the three characters. Dee has changed her name to Wangero to get closer to her so-called â€Å"culture† and is collecting many objects of her past that she did not want before. On her mother’s savings for her, Dee is able to go to college and thereforeRead MoreEveryday Use By Alice Walker923 Words   |  4 Pagesevery day is a tale of conflict between society’s upper and lower class. While controversial in the real world, this notion is not far-fetched in the realm of literature. For example, Alice Walker’s short story â€Å"Everyday Use† shows prominent signs of tension between classes. When examined from a Marxist perspective, Walker’s characters in â€Å"Everyday Use† highlight how each class values items and how survival needs and socie tal expectations differ among classes. To clarify, Walker’s narrative focuses onRead MoreThe Importance Of Family Heritage By Alice Walker1100 Words   |  5 PagesSydney Elliott ENGL 102-52 Dr. Irmer February 25, 2015 The Importance of Family Heritage One of the most inspiring authors in American history is Alice Walker. Walker is the youngest child in a sharecropper family that found her overly ambitious and highly competitive (Walker 609). This gave her a strong fighting attitude, which allowed her to make positive changes in an extremely racist society. Unfortunately, when she was young, Walker was accidentally shot in her right eye with a BB gun whileRead MoreEssay on A Psychological Analysis of Alice Walkers Everyday Use883 Words   |  4 PagesA Psychological Analysis of Alice Walkers Everyday Use  Ã‚     Ã‚   The human mind is divided into three parts that make up the mind as a whole. These parts are necessary to have a complete mind, just as the members of a family are needed to make up the entire family. The use of components to equal a whole is often exercised in literature. Alice Walkers short story, Everyday Use, contains the idea of family and of the mind, therefore her work can be evaluated through psychological methods. ThroughRead MoreEveryday Use By Alice Walker1111 Words   |  5 PagesIn some stories, characters can face conflicts in their culture. Alice Walker highlights and distinguishes the dissimilarities and clichà © of country African American women with the actualities that make up their lives. Characterized by short, compound sentences, with long adjectives and use of literary elements, her style is eloquent conversational and authentic. Alice Walker’s short story, Everyday Use is stylistic, ironic and narrates profound interpretation of unique views and approaches to African-American

Copyright Infringement Free-Samples for Students-Myassignmenthelp

Question: Explain the Law, Infringement of Copyright and the Defenses available for the Company. Answer: Introduction The assignment is contains of the Copyright Act 1987 of Malaysia. The acts of copyright is briefly described with case laws. The famous cases Honda Giken Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha v Allied Pacific Motor (M) Sdn Bhd Anor [2005] 3 MLJ 30 and Microsoft Corporation v Conquest Computer Centre Sdn Bhd [2014] 6 CLJ 876 of copyright act are also briefly described with relevant status . Discussion As per the case law sec-3 of CA 1987 of Copyright act relevant to the case mater of The issue of this Honda Giken Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha v Allied Pacific Motor (M) Sdn Bhd Anor [2005] 3 MLJ 30. The defended copyright the designs of motorcycle without the consent of the copyright owner. Microsoft Corporation v Conquest Computer Centre Sdn Bhd [2014] 6 CLJ 876 case the the defended infringed the copyright ownership of plaintiff. So according the sec 26(4) of the copyright act 1987 the author must prove the contrary. As according the provision, the defendant failed to prove the contrary. Therefore, he made a criminal offence. The law on copyright in Malaysia is come on action by the Copyright Act 1987 from 1 December 1987. Copyright is a form of law, which establishes ownership upon the things that someone invented (San Peng, 2016). The person who is established or inventing the work called author. The ownership that establishes copyright law must contains some rights. Those rights are:Right to develop above the work Right to issue the copiesRight to assign the workRight to show or display the works in publicRight claim the ownership of the workRight to identify any damage or deformationRight to take legal action if any illegal interference damage authors reputation.. Copyright infringement is the right to reproduce, which protects the work from breaking any terms, related that law. A copyright is infringed when someone who is other than the owners does following acts:Rework on that product, perform or play or showed in public or broadcast through a medium of original workWhen someone imports any article in Malaysia without the consent of the owner may infringe the copyright law.Infringing in electronic media also treated as an offence. Copyright infringement is a criminal offence. The minimum fine of RM 2,000 per infringing copy allocated for this criminal offence (Adam, 2016). In Honda Giken Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha v Allied Pacific Motor (M) Sdn Bhd Anor [2005] 3 MLJ 30 case, a popular Japanese company of bikes and cars issued a complain for an interlocutory injunction against a local company of motorcycle for production of two models by them. The first model COMEL MANJA JMP 125 bike model design was infringe from the model HONDA WAVE 125 and COMEL MANJA JMP-100 (GS-5) motorcycle design infringed from the model HONDA EX-5 DREAM. Here, sec-3 of CA 1987 of copyright act establishes the case of copyright infringing fir reproducing the work without the consent of the copyright holder (Sritharan et al.,2015). Malaysia high court gave judgment against the defendant. The court establishes some facts. The complainant has legal rights to sue the local company for damages and can apply injunction to discontinue the publication or handed the infringing models for destroying them by the copyright holder (Zakuan et al.,2016). Microsoft Corporation v Conquest Computer Centre Sdn Bhd [2014] 6 CLJ 876 case the the plaintiff has a business of designing, marketing, producing of computer accessories had a copyright ownership of software named Microsoft. The defendant was a Malaysian company who had used the plaintiffs software in their computer programming without the plaintiffs consent (Sritharan et al.,2015). As per the sec- 26(4) of the copyright act 1987 the copyright holder must have prove of his contrary. The defendant installed one of the software without a license from the plaintiff. As the company fails to prove the contrary, it made a criminal offence (Zakuan et al.,2016). Conclusion The above written assignment provides brief information about infringing of copyright. The following two case laws also established the laws of infringement of copyright. In both cases, the court gave the judgment against because the defendants had infringed the plaintiffs copyright. Reference Sritharan, K., Wee, V. M. E., Chin, R. M. Y., Jong, E. E. M. (2015). A case study: the knowledge and awareness levels of copyright infringement among learners utilising digital technologies in Sunway College Johor Bahru. Zakuan, Z. Z. M., Ismail, I. R., Hamid, R. A., Pauzi, S. F. M. (2016). COPYRIGHT INFRINGEMENT IN THE ERA OF TECHNOLOGY ADVANCEMENT: A MALAYSIAN PERSPECTIVE.Asian journal of social sciences humanities,5(2), 54-61. San, T. P., Peng, S. C. (2016). Legal Issues on Free Software and License Contracts: A Malaysian Perspective. InFree and Open Source Software (FOSS) and other Alternative License Models(pp. 293-309). Springer International Publishing. Adam, A. (2016). A historical analysis of the criminal sanctions in the Malaysian copyright regime (19021969).QUEEN MARY JOURNAL OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY,6(1), 55-74. Azmi, A. G., Madieha, I., Jeong, C. P. (2015).Patent law in Malaysia: cases and commentary. Sweet Maxwell Asia. binti Mohamed, D. (2013). Combating the threats of cybercrimes in Malaysia: The efforts, the cyberlaws and the traditional laws.Computer Law Security Review,29(1), 66-76. Copyright Law in Malaysia: Does the Balance Hold? - [2004] JMCL 2; (2004) 31 Journal of Malaysian and Comparative Law 23. (2017). Commonlii.org. Retrieved 19 April 2017, from https://www.commonlii.org/my/journals/JMCL/2004/2.

Sociology free essay sample

Media and Violence with Music Background Hip-hop music stemmed from a resistance movement in the sass. Rap music, one form of hip-hop, became more mainstream in the late sass and early 1990s. Historically; this form of hip hop was used to voice extreme opposition of dominant culture and represents the struggle of disadvantaged Black youth in urban ghettos of the South Bronx, and later South Central Los Angles. Rap music lyrics have been proven to be extensions of a constant struggle between a dominant White society and the struggle of disadvantaged minorities (mostly Black), to obtain social capital Martinez 1997).This resistance to mainstream society has created an oppositional culture. According to Martinez (1997), the Race Relations theory states that oppositional culture consists of subordinate groups, who use parts of their own culture such as values and resources, to oppose the majority or dominant society In order to survive. Black youth (specifically adolescent males) have formed an oppositional culture because of the disadvantages in their communities, labeled, urban neglect (Martinez 1997). We will write a custom essay sample on Sociology or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This created a resistance that is shown through messages In rap music.Many messages that are portrayed In rap music are often violent In nature, because the artists are speaking about their own communities, where the despair is pervasive enough to have spawned an oppositional culture, that of the streets, whose norms are often consciously opposed to those of mainstream society (Anderson 1994: 82). Violence is so much a part of these disadvantaged communities that a set of Informal rules, which polices personal and group behaviors, has been established and many of the lyrics in rap music reflect a code of the street (Elijah Anderson 1994).According to Elijah Anderson (1994), author f the Code of the Streets, throughout all the problems that poor, disadvantaged black communities face, violence Is the most harmful. For a black youth In this type of disadvantaged community, Anderson (1994) claims that Just living in an environment like this can sculpt a violent identity. Unfortunately these Black youth have no choice but to live by these rules, and accept the amount of violence and crime as a norm that Is In their communities.Violence and Medal Although rap music embodies a well-established culture of violence (Richardson and Scott 2002), violence in the media isnt only reserved to rap music. Violent media has been proven to be associated with involvement in violent behavior (Richardson and Scott 2002). Because youth, especially adolescents look to find people as role models, they often subsequently are choosing those rap artists who speak about oppositional culture and violence. Anderson and Cavalry (2002) found that a part of the way teens identify with lyrics is shown in the aspects of youth (adolescent) Identity development.But teen Identification Isnt Just shaped or Influenced by rap music lyrics. According to the Commission for the Prevention of Youth Violence, by GE 18, the average American youth will have seen 16,000 simulated murders and 20 0,000 acts of violence through different media forms (Richardson and Scott 2002). A Juvenile detention center and an average high school and found that simply a preference for violent media was predictive of personal violence and aggression. They found that even when an individual originally has low aggression, they are still in some way affected by violence in media (Boxer et. L. 2009). Violence in Rap Rap music content however, contains a large amount of violence in comparison with other media outlets. In a study done by Chairs E. Suburb (2005), he found many rap lyrics actually provide Justification for violence on the street and a direct link to willingness to use violence to protect or defend identity and reputation. About 65% of all rap songs in his sample referenced a violent theme and violent retaliation was found in 58% of the sample (Suburb 2005).Suburb also found that listeners hold the street code as a normal order to life and that rap lyrics are actual reproductions of the code that describe black urban street life (Suburb 2005:375). He argues it is important to realize that rap is a characterization of urban life. It is clear that as notations in the inner city have gotten worse in the last 10 years, the prevalence of street code has risen (Anderson 1994). Suburb states that these conditions have defined the context in which rap has emerged (Suburb 2005:365).Thus, since violence is extremely prevalent in rap music lyrics, and held highly by those who can identify most with it, perhaps it could have a significant influence on adolescent rap fans of different races. Conclusion Violence in rap music is proven to be pervasive and also, like other media outlets that contain a high amount of aggression and violent acts, it does affect how a youth identifies with it. Lyrics in rap music are a reflection of an oppositional culture and can therefore aid in shaping an adolescents violent social identity. Sociology free essay sample Childhood as a Social Construct: * Pilcher (1995) notes that the most important feature of modern childhood is ‘separateness’ from adulthood – it is seen as a clear and distinct LIFE STAGE. * Children in our society have a different status to the adults and have different expectations of them. * This is emphasised in several ways, such as: * Laws which regulate what children can and can’t do. * Difference in dress, for young children especially. Through goods and services especially for children such as food, toys, books and play areas. * Related is the idea of childhood as being a ‘golden age’ of innocence and happiness. * This innocence means that children are considered to be vulnerable and in need or protection. * Children need to be ‘shielded’ from the hardships of the adult world. * As a result of this, children’s lives are lived largely within the confines of the family and education where they are provided for and protected by the adults. We will write a custom essay sample on Sociology or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page They lead lives of leisure and play unlike adults. * Wagg (1992): ‘Childhood is socially constructed. It is, in other words, what members of particular societies, at particular times and in particular places, say it is. There is no single universal childhood, experienced by all. So, childhood isn’t ‘natural’ and should be distinguished from mere biological immunity. ’ * All humans go through the same stages of development; different cultures construct and define this process differently. In the Western world, children are defined as weak, vulnerable and unable to care for themselves, however other cultures do not take this view. * A good way to see these differences is to take a comparative approach, for instance: * Punch’s (2001) study of childhood in RURAL BOLIVIA found that at around the age of five, children were expected to take on work responsibilities in the home and community. * Firth (1970) found that among the TIKOPIA of the WESTERN PACIFIC doing as an adult tells you is a concession of respect from the child and not a ight to be expected by the adult. * Holmes’ (1974) study of SAMOAN people found that ‘too young’ is not an acceptable excuse for not allowing a child to carry out a particular task: ‘Whether it be the handling of dangerous tools or the carrying of extremely heavy loads, if a child thinks he can handle the activity, parents do not object’. * Aries (1960): ‘the idea of childhood did not exist’. Children were not seen as having a different nature or needs to the adults after they had passed the stage of physical dependence during infanc y. During the Middle Ages, children were essentially ‘mini-adults’, with the same rules and punishments applying to both. * Aries states that elements of the modern childhood began to emerge from the 13th Century onwards: * Schools: (which adults had previously also attended) came to specialise exclusively in the education of the young. This reflected the influence of the church, which increasingly saw children as ‘fragile creatures of God’ in need of protection and discipline from worldly evils. * Clothing: Children and adults began to dress differently. By the 17th Century, an upper-class boy would wear something ‘reserved for his own age group’ which would set him apart from the adults. * Parenting Books: childrearing handbooks were widely available by the 18th Century – a sign of increasingly child-centric values in the family, at least in the middle classes. * Aries claims that these ^ developments have caused the ‘cult of childhood’ and that we have moved form a time that did not find anything notable in childhood to one where we are obsessed with it. * He describes the 20th Century as ‘the century of childhood’. Pollock (1983) argues that previously there was just a different idea of what childhood was, not that it did not exist. * Aries’ work is valuable though as it provides evidence for the theory that childhood is a social construct. Has The Position of Children Improved? * March of Progress: Standards of living for children have been steadily improving and have never bee n as good as they are today. Today’s children are more valued, cared for, protected, educated, enjoy better health care and have more rights than those that came before them. In 1900, the infant mortality rate was 154 in every 1,000 births, now it is just 5. * Smaller family sizes (from 5. 7 births per woman to just 1. 84 in 2006) and better living standards mean that parents can provide properly for their children. Studies suggest that by the time a child reaches its 21st birthday, they will have cost their parents up to ? 186,000 (Liverpool Victoria, 2007). * Declining family size and lowering infant mortality rates are encouraging parents to make a greater financial and emotional investment in fewer children. Donzelot (1977) observes how theories on child development began to emphasise the need for supervision and protection of children. * Laws and policies now apply specifically to children, placing minimum ages of activities such as drinking, driving and sex, and these h ave reinforced the idea of a ‘separateness’ between children and adults. * MOP sociologists argue that the family is now ‘child-centred’; children should no long be seen-and-not-heard as in Victorian times. * Parents invest emotionally in their children like never before, and often have high aspirations for them to have better jobs and lives than they had. Society is also ‘child-centred’ now, as well with many media and leisure facilities geared specifically towards children. The Conflict View: * Conflict Sociologists (Marxists and Feminists) dispute the MOP concept because they argue that society is based around conflicts between different social classes or genders with some people with more power than others. * These sociologists argue that the concept of modern childhood is false and idealistic and ignores inequalities. They criticise MOP on two key points: * There are inequalities AMONG CHILDREN in terms of opportunities and risks as many are still unprotected and poorly cared for. * There are inequalities between CHILDREN AND ADULTS and they are greater than ever before: children today are being more greatly controlled, oppressed and are therefore increasingly dependent upon adults. Inequalities Between Children: * Not all children have the same status and experience: some boys attend Eton College, some a state comprehensive. * Children of different ationalities experience different childhoods and opportunities, 90% of the world’s low birth-weight babies are born in the Third world. * There are GENDER differences too, Hillman (1993) notes that boys are more likely to go be allowed to cross the road or go out and play by themselves than girls and Bonke (1999) found that girls were more likely to do more domestic labour, particularly within LPFs, where they do five times more housework than b oys. * There are also ETHNIC differences: Brannen’s (1994) study of 15-16 year olds showed Asian parents as much more likely to be strict to their daughters: honour killings. Bhatti (1999) found that izzat (family honour) could be restrictive of girl’s behaviour particularly. Inequalities Between Children and Adults: * MOP writers believe that adults use the power they have over children for their protection, as in the passing of child labour laws. * However, Firestone (1979) and Holt (1974) argue that what the MOP writers see as protection is just cleverly disguised oppression. * Firestone argues that ‘protection’ from paid work is not a benefit but just serves to segregate children, make them dependent upon adults and therefore subject to their control. These critics hold a view known as ‘child liberationalism’ as they see the need to free children from adult control and abuse. This abuse takes a number of forms: * Neglect and Abuse: physica l neglect or physical, sexual or emotional abuse is an extreme form of adult control. In 2006 alone, 31,400 children were on child protection registers because they were deemed to be in potentially unsafe living environments, at risk mostly from their own parents. ChildLine receives over 20,000 calls a year from children saying they’ve been physically or sexually abused which reveals a ‘dark side’ to the family. Children’s Space: shops may display signs banning schoolchildren from their shops, shopping centres and public areas are more highly surveyed particularly during school hours, and fears about road safety and ‘stranger danger’ have led to more children being driven to school by parents and prevented from travelling alone. Cunningham (2007) found that the ‘home habitat’ (where children may travel unaccompanied) has shrunk to one 9th of what it used to be. * Children’s Time: adults in today’s society control chi ldren’s daily outines: when they eat, sleep, wake up, are at school or at home, when they work, when they play. Therefore, they control the speed at which a child ‘grows up’. They decide if a child is old enough nor not, and this contrasts with Holmes’ findings among Samoans – ‘too young’ is never given as a reason not to let a child perform a task. * Children’s Bodies: adults can control how a child sits, walks or runs, what they wear, how they have their hair, if their ears are pierced, and in certain situations can touch them – to wash them, dress them, feet them or to show affection. However, adults can also restrict how a child touches its own body. * Access to Resources: children have limited ways in which they can earn money, so remain dependent upon adults. Compulsory schooling and child labour laws exclude them from all but the most marginal, poorly paid, part-time jobs. Child benefit does not go to the child; pocket money may be given for good behaviour, but may also be restricted to certain objects. Age Patriarchy: * The power the father has over the rest of the family. * This can assert itself in the form of violence against both children and women. Humphreys and Thiara (2002): found a quarter of the women in their study of 200 left their abusive partner because they feared for their children. * This supports the view of Gittins (1998) that patriarchy oppresses both women and children. * Evidence (Hockey and James, 1993) that children find childhood oppressive comes from looking at how they resist it: * ‘Acting up’: engaging in activities tha t adults can but they can’t, such as drinking, swearing, smoking, joy-riding and under-age sex. ‘Acting down’: behaving in ways that are associated with younger children, such as baby-talk, or being carried. * Hockey and James conclude that this proves that children wish to escape childhood. * Critics of the child liberationalists argue that some control needs to be exercised over children’s lives because they are unable to make certain decisions for themselves. * It is also argued that children are not as helpless as claimed, as they have legal rights to be protected and consulted. The Future of Childhood: The Disappearance of Childhood: * Postman (1994) comments that childhood is ‘disappearing at a dazzling speed’. * He points out that children are being given the same rights as adults, dressing the same as adults and even committing ‘adult’ crimes like murder. * This, he argues, is to do with the rise and fall of print culture and the advent of television culture. * During the MIDDLE AGES, as most people were illiterate, speech was the only skill required to participate in the adult world, so children could join at an early age. Childhood was not a concept; there was no division between a child’s world and an adult’s. * Childhood emerged with mass literacy: there was suddenly a division between the adults who could read and the children who could not. This meant that adults could keep knowledge of sex, death, illness, and other ‘adult things’ secret from the children. These things faded into mystery and childhood became associated with innocence and ignorance from the 19th Century onwards. Television blurs the line between child and adult, destroying the ‘knowledge hierarchy’. Unlike reading, television requires no special skills and therefore makes the same information available to both adults and children. Adult authority diminishes and childhood’s innocence is replaced with knowledge and cynicism. * The opposite of this is the disappearance of adulthood – where adult’s and children’s tastes and styles become indistinguishable. * Postmanâ €™s study details how communication technology can influence the way childhood is constructed. However, he over-emphasised television as the single cause of this change and neglected to discuss others such as improved living conditions and changes in the law. A Separate Childhood Culture: * Opie (1993), however, argues the opposite. * Based on a lifetime’s research into children’s games, rhymes and songs conducted with her husband, she argues that evidence strongly suggests that a separate children’s culture has existed for many years. * These findings contradict Postman – their studies show that children can and do create their own separate lives/cultures. The Globalisation of Western Childhood: * Child liberationalists argue that childhood is not disappearing, quite the contrary – it is spreading. * Through GLOBALISATION, the western concept of childhood is being exported and imposed upon other cultures thanks to international humanitarian organisations and welfare agencies. * Campaigns against child labour and street children in the Third World reflect Western ideas about the norms of childhood, while not taking into account the culture of the countries they are campaigning to change. Contradictory Trends – the Reconstruction of Childhood? * Some writers are concerned that children are experiencing what Palmer (2006) dubbed as the ‘toxic childhood’. * Advances in technology and cultural changes in the last 25 years have stunted children’s emotional, physical and intellectual development. * These changes include: junk food, computer games, intensive marketing, the long hours worked by parents and the emphasis on testing in education. Young people’s behaviour has also raised concerns – Margo and Dixon (2006) reported that the UK’s youth are at or near to the top of the international league tables for obesity, self-harm, substance abuse, under-age sexual activity and teenage pregnancy. * Such observations induce an anxiety that childhood as an innocent and protected life-stage is under threat. This is hard to prove, however, for two reasons: * Not universal: not all children experience the same childhood. * Which aspect of childhood are we talking about? Some suggest the continuation of childhood as a separate life-stage, others do not: * Rights: though children have more rights, they are not totally equal to adults and remain under their authority. * Similarities: between adults and children’s dress sense, food and activities. * Education: the extension of compulsory and non-compulsory education has made young-adults economically dependet ‘children’ for longer. * Freedom: ‘stranger danger’ has meant children freely roam in smaller spaces than ever efore. * Childhood may be disappearing due to the ‘ageing population’ there are more old people and fewer young people in the world. * Qvortrup (1990) argues that as the numbers of adults with dependent children decreases, the number of voices calling for resources to go to children decreases with it. * As families become smaller, childhood may become a lonelier and isolated period as there will be fewer children around. * However, the relativ e scarcity of children may cause people to value them more highly.